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Energy markets will be significantly different in the future. The electricity generation system is becoming more diverse with the development of energy-related technologies including renewable energy sources, storage technologies and demand-side management. Beyond the electricity sector, various low-carbon energy technologies are being developed to respond to the need to decarbonise hard-to-abate sectors such as heavy industry and long-distance transportation.
In this report the NEA investigates the changing needs of energy markets and the potential role of nuclear technologies as low-carbon energy sources. Focusing on the technical characteristics of advanced nuclear reactor systems, including Generation III/III+ reactors, small modular reactors and
Generation IV reactors, it explores the ways these advanced nuclear technologies could address the future energy market needs. The conclusion is that advanced nuclear reactor systems, while complying with the flexibility requirements of the electricity grid and supporting system reliability, have a large potential as alternative low-carbon energy sources for residential and industrial heat supply and hydrogen production.
Nuclear power plants are used extensively as base load sources of electricity. This is the most economical and technically simple mode of operation. In this mode, power changes are limited to frequency regulation for grid stability purposes and shutdowns for safety purposes.
However for countries with high nuclear shares or desiring to significantly increase renewable energy sources, the question arises as to the ability of nuclear power plants to follow load on a regular basis, including daily variations of the power demand.
This report considers the capability of nuclear power plants to follow load and the associated issues that arise when operating in a load following mode. The report was initiated as part of the NEA study “System effects of nuclear power”. It provided a detailed analysis of the technical and economic aspects of load-following with nuclear power plants, and summarises the impact of load-following on the operational mode, fuel performance and ageing of large equipment components of the plant.
Climate change will create specific risks and challenges for nuclear power plants and the electricity system as a whole. Extreme weather events caused by climate change – such as floods, storms, heat waves and droughts – have already affected the operation of nuclear power plants. Any increase in the temperature of the water used to cool nuclear power plants can also lead to reductions in their power output due to decreasing thermal efficiency.
This report sets out the adaptation strategies that can be effectively implemented to improve the resilience of existing plants as well as any new installations. The costs of adaptation to climate change can vary significantly depending on the type of reactor, the climate change issues affecting them, as well as the applicable regulations and standards. However, while these adaptation costs can, in some cases, be significant, the costs of inaction – both directly at the plant level and indirectly for the electricity system – are likely to be even higher.
Understanding the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant is important for safe and timely decommissioning of the reactors. This objective, together with the development of better computer codes for analysis of severe accidents, was the aim of the benchmark study conducted under the auspices of the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. Through the diversity of the modelling codes and approaches, and the use of parametric studies, it has been possible to identify the more likely scenarios that can fit with the limited data available from the accident. The insights gained from the project will help guide research into severe accident behaviour, improve severe accident computer codes, develop accident mitigation and response at nuclear power plants, support regulatory oversight related to severe accidents, and inform policies on the development and deployment of nuclear technology.
This report highlights the potential role of nuclear in contributing to the circular carbon economy as a low-carbon source of electricity, but also as a source of heat and system integration services. It further highlights the essential role played by the existing nuclear reactor fleet in supporting the resilience of the electricity system through the COVID-19 crisis, and the significant role that the nuclear sector can play in post-COVID-19 recovery efforts.
As with all low-carbon technologies, a number of enabling policies are needed for nuclear power to play its full role in the circular carbon economy. They are outlined in the last section of this report. Building on these conclusions, G20 countries could take specific action in a number of areas, both individually and collectively.
Experimental facilities in nuclear energy are key to addressing safety issues. The recent loss of some critical infrastructure, from facilities to industry expertise, has therefore become a concern for many countries. In response, the NEA has launched several efforts to address the matter as outlined in this report. Current safety issues, research needs and research facilities associated with currently operating water-cooled reactors in NEA countries are all addressed. Also included is an assessment of the present needs to maintain experimental databases. The Senior Group of Experts on Nuclear Safety Research, which produced this update of the 2007 report on the same issue, noted the success of previous reviews in helping maintain critical infrastructure and make a number of recommendations to preserve key research facilities and capabilities.
The existing nuclear fleet remains the largest low-carbon source of electricity generation in OECD countries. In 2021 the average nuclear power plant had already been operating for 31 years and some 30% of reactors worldwide were already operating under long-term operation conditions. The long-term operation of this existing nuclear capacity will be essential over the next decade to keep decarbonisation targets within reach. At the same time, by keeping the long-term-operation option open, countries could also reap a wide-range of socio-economic benefits including more affordable and secure electricity supply. Nevertheless, an increasing number of reactors are being shut down earlier than expected due to policy decisions and increasing market pressures in some regions.
In light of these trends, this study takes a holistic approach to identifying the key enablers for long-term operation of nuclear power plants. The attractiveness of long-term operation lies in its technical maturity, cost-competiveness and ease of implementation: it is a high-value option to support the energy transition while minimising potential risks along the way.
東日本大震災とそれに続く福島第一原子力発電所事故から10年が経ち、多くの教訓が得られたが、まだ多くの課題が残っている。
この報告書は福島第一原子力発電所の現況と、事故後の日本の当局並びに国際社会の対応について報告するもので、事故に起因する多面的な問題を政策決定者と一般市民双方が理解することに役立つであろう。それには、災害復旧努力、損害賠償、原子力安全、原子力規制、放射線防護、廃炉作業、放射性廃棄物管理、コミュニティにおける心理社会的問題、社会的回復力（レジリエンス）などに関するものが含まれる。
本報告書はOECDの原子力機関（NEA）が2013年と2016年に発行した前回の報告書を土台とし、福島第一原子力発電所並びに被災地と人々の今後の展望を検討するとともに、さらなる改善余地と、国際社会がどう支援できるかについて概要する。
The world’s nuclear power reactors are ageing, with the majority approaching the end of their planned operational lifetimes in the coming years. The adequacy of funding for decommissioning and radioactive waste management (RMW) thus increasingly commands the attention of decision-makers.
This report by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) combines a solid conceptual framework with the insights from twelve case studies of NEA member countries to propose a new approach to the adequacy of funding that is both robust and flexible.
Current funding systems in NEA countries are overall adequate. The challenges ahead however are formidable: decommissioning and RWM are moving from design to implementation, returns on assets are low and societal preferences can evolve. The very long-term nature of the solutions, in particular for radioactive waste disposal, is also not easily compatible with the economic lifetimes of the original liability holders.
This requires that all elements of the system – accrued funds, expected future returns, the lifetimes of nuclear power plants, the expected costs of politically sustainable technical solutions and the liabilities for residual risks – are reviewed and realigned at regular intervals. Complementing existing approaches with such a circular approach will strengthen funding arrangements and ensure their adequacy for decades to come.
It is essential that organisations in the nuclear community maintain a healthy safety culture to achieve common goals regarding the safe operation of nuclear facilities and the safe use of nuclear material. Regulatory bodies are no exception, as a key element of the interconnected system which includes licensees, research institutions, technical support organisations, as well as governmental organisations and other stakeholders. By their very nature, regulatory bodies deeply influence the safety culture and the safety of the organisations they regulate and oversee. Based on their regulatory strategy, the way they carry out their daily oversight work, the type of relationship they cultivate with licensees, the values they convey and the importance they give to safety, regulatory bodies profoundly impact the licensees’ safety culture, their sense of responsibility for safety and, by extension, the safety of their installations.
Regulatory bodies apply a number of methods, practices and approaches to foster and sustain a healthy safety culture. This report provides an overview and practical examples to build the regulatory bodies’ safety culture competence and to perform self-reflection and self-assessment with regard to their own safety culture and its impact on the safety culture of the organisations they oversee. Drawing directly from the experiences from OECD Nuclear Energy Agency member countries, the report discusses effective methods to disseminate safety culture throughout the regulatory body, to build competence in safety culture, and to develop self-reflection and self-assessment activities. Finally, the report presents ten conclusions based on lessons learnt and best practices to inspire managers to continuously develop their regulatory body’s safety culture.
As the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant (NPP) accident illustrates, many challenges have to be faced in maintaining safety over the long term in a damaged NPP following a severe accident. These comprise maintaining and monitoring a stabilised and controlled state of the damaged plant; implementing provisions against further failures; evaluating the plant damaged state from a physical and radiological standpoint and ranking related risks; preparing and achieving fuel retrieval (either fuel assemblies stored in spent fuel pools or fuel debris from damaged reactors); and managing safely plant recovery and accident waste. All these actions are to be conducted protecting plant personnel from radiation exposure.
This status report reviews knowledge and experience gained through long-term management (LTM) of the Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and Fukushima Daiichi accidents, by identifying and ranking main issues and knowledge gaps. It also reviews the existing regulations and guidance, practices, technical bases and issues considered in member countries of the Nuclear Energy Agency regarding LTM of a severely damaged nuclear site.
Finally, it proposes recommendations and areas for future investigation to enhance LTM of an NPP as regards necessary knowledge and provisions development, particularly for the optimisation of management of contaminated cooling waters.
Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are gaining recognition among policymakers and industry players as a promising nuclear technology. SMRs can be defined as nuclear reactors with a power output between 10 MWe and 300 MWe that incorporate by design higher modularisation, standardisation and factory-based construction levels enabling more predictable delivery models based on the economies of series. Today, more than 50 concepts are under development covering a wide range of technology approaches and maturity levels. The value proposition of the SMR technology also includes potential financing and system integration benefits. These attractive features, however, rely on a business case that requires the development of a global SMR market to become economically viable. Large-scale deployment of SMRs faces several technical, economic, regulatory and supply chain challenges and will need considerable governmental efforts and efficient international collaborative frameworks to be realised in the next decade.
The Information System on Occupational Exposure (ISOE) is jointly sponsored by the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Since 1992, ISOE has provided a forum for radiological protection professionals from nuclear licensees and national regulatory authorities worldwide to share dose reduction information and operational experience aiming to improve the optimisation of radiological protection at nuclear power plants.
As of 31 December 2018, the ISOE Programme included 76 participating licensees in 31 countries (352 operating units, 61 shutdown units and 10 units under construction and/or commissioning), as well as 28 regulatory authorities in 26 countries. The ISOE database contains occupational exposure information for 500 units, covering over 85% of the world’s operating commercial power reactors. In addition, the ISOE database contains dose data from 106 reactors that are shut down or in some stage of decommissioning.
While ISOE is well known for its occupational exposure data and analyses, the Programme’s strength comes from its objective to share such information broadly among its participants.
This 28th Annual Report presents the status of the ISOE Programme for the calendar year 2018. The report includes global occupational exposure data and analyses collected and accomplished in 2018, as well as information on the Programme achievements and principle events in participating countries.
Nuclear Energy Data is the Nuclear Energy Agency’s annual compilation of statistics and country reports documenting nuclear power status in NEA member countries and in the OECD area. Information provided by governments includes statistics on total electricity produced by all sources and by nuclear power, fuel cycle capacities and requirements, and projections to 2040, where available. Country reports summarise energy policies, updates of the status in nuclear energy programmes and fuel cycle developments.
In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of electricity security in modern societies. Although the long-term implications for electricity generation are difficult to assess, during the crisis nuclear power continued to support the security of supply and has been, together with renewables, one of the most resilient electricity sources. In 2019, nuclear power continued to supply significant amounts of low carbon baseload electricity, despite strong competition from low-cost fossil fuels and renewable energy sources. Governments committed to having nuclear power in the energy mix advanced plans for developing or increasing nuclear generating capacity, with the preparation of new build projects making progress in countries such as Finland, Hungary, Turkey, the United Kingdom and Russia. Further details on these and other developments are provided in the publication’s numerous tables, graphs and country reports.
This publication contains “StatLinks”. For each StatLink, the reader will find a URL which leads to the corresponding spreadsheet. These links work in the same way as an Internet link.
A wealth of technical information exists on nuclear fuel cycle options – combinations of nuclear fuel types, reactor types, used or spent nuclear fuel (SNF) treatments, and disposal schemes – and most countries with active nuclear power programmes conduct some level of research and development on advanced nuclear fuel cycles. However, perhaps because of the number of options that exist, it is often difficult for policy makers to understand the nature and magnitude of the differences between the various options.
This report explores the fuel cycle options and the differentiating characteristics of these options. It also describes the driving factors for decisions related to both the development of the fuel cycle and the characteristics resulting from implementing the option. It includes information on the current status and future plans for power reactors, reprocessing facilities, disposal facilities, and the status of research and development activities in several countries. It is designed for policy makers to understand the differences among the fuel cycle options in a way that is concise, understandable, and based on the existing technologies, while keeping technical discussions to a minimum.
Much has been learnt in the ten years since the Great Eastern Japan Earthquake and the subsequent accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, but significant challenges still remain.
This report presents the current situation at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant and the responses by Japanese authorities and the international community since the accident. It will assist both policymakers and the general public to understand the multi-dimensional issues stemming from the accident. These include disaster recovery, compensation for damages, nuclear safety, nuclear regulation, radiation protection, plant decommissioning, radioactive waste management, psycho-social issues in the community and societal resilience.
Building on two previous reports released by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) in 2013 and 2016, the report examines the plant’s future, that of the affected region and population, as well as outlining areas for further improvement and how the international community can help.
The decisions made about exposure to ionising radiation tend to be driven by subjective judgements about the health risks that radiation exposure may cause. In order to reach decisions that are effective and sustainable, it is essential for nuclear safety regulators, governments, nuclear facility operators and other nuclear energy decision makers to communicate scientific, technical and regulatory information regarding radiological and other risks to all stakeholders. Communicating such information can be complex since people judge and evaluate risks differently depending on the context and on their perceptions of risk.
In this context, the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) organised the “Stakeholder Involvement Workshop on Risk Communication: Towards a Shared Understanding of Radiological Risks” in September 2019. The workshop provided an opportunity for participants to share perspectives and lessons learnt in risk communication, identifying what has been effective and what has been less effective in the various cases. By understanding how situation-specific factors influence risk communication, a common framework addressing such circumstances can begin to emerge.
This report attempts to capture the collective wisdom generated over the three days of interactions in the hope that the knowledge gained from this workshop will benefit governments and citizens alike.
This volume is the fourteenth of the series “Chemical Thermodynamics” published by the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. It is the second update of the critical reviews published, successively, in 1992 as Chemical Thermodynamics of Uranium, in 1995 as Chemical Thermodynamics of Americium, in 1999 as Chemical Thermodynamics of Technetium, in 2001 as Chemical Thermodynamics of Neptunium and Plutonium and in 2003 as the first Update on the Chemical Thermodynamics of Uranium, Neptunium, Plutonium, Americium and Technetium. A team, composed of nine internationally recognised experts, has critically reviewed all the relevant scientific literature for the above mentioned systems that has appeared since the publication of the earlier volumes. The results of this assessment, carried out following the Guidelines of the Thermochemical Database Project, have been documented in the present volume, which contains new tables of selected values for formation and reaction data and an extensive bibliography. The database system developed at the NEA Data Bank ensures consistency within the recommended data sets. This volume will be of particular interest to scientists carrying out performance assessments of deep geological disposal sites for radioactive waste.
Uranium is the raw material used to produce fuel for long-lived nuclear power facilities, necessary for the generation of significant amounts of low-carbon electricity and other uses, such as heat and hydrogen production, for decades to come. Although a valuable commodity, major producing countries limited total production in recent years in response to a depressed uranium market. Uranium production cuts have unexpectedly deepened with the onset of the global COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020, leading to some questions being raised about future uranium supply.
This 28th edition of the “Red Book”, a recognised world reference on uranium jointly prepared by the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), provides analyses and information from 45 producing and consuming countries in order to address these and other questions. The present edition reviews world uranium market fundamentals and presents data on global uranium exploration, resources, production and reactor-related requirements. It offers updated information on established uranium production centres and mine development plans, as well as projections of nuclear generating capacity and reactor-related requirements through 2040.
Low-level and very low-level waste represent the vast majority of radioactive waste by volume from decommissioning activity at nuclear facilities around the world, but they are only a small fraction of the radiological inventory. The availability of the appropriate waste management infrastructure, including a robust process and procedures for managing waste, waste disposal routes and an appropriate safety culture, are key components of an optimal approach to decommissioning. Recognising the important role of an effective waste management strategy in the delivery of a successful decommissioning programme, the former NEA Working Party on Decommissioning and Dismantling (WPDD) established an expert group in 2016 – the Task Group on Optimising Management of Low-Level Radioactive Materials and Waste from Decommissioning (TGOM) – to examine how countries manage (very) low-level radioactive waste and materials arising from decommissioning.
This report explores elements contributing to the optimisation of national approaches at a strategic level, describing the main factors and the relationships between them. It also identifies constraints in the practical implementation of optimisation based on experience in NEA member countries.