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Democracies are at a critical juncture, under growing internal and external pressures. This publication sheds light on the important public governance challenges countries face today in preserving and strengthening their democracies, including fighting mis- and disinformation; improving government openness, citizen participation and inclusiveness; and embracing global responsibilities and building resilience to foreign influence. It also looks at two cross-cutting themes that will be crucial for robust, effective democracies: transforming public governance for digital democracy and gearing up government to deliver on climate and other environmental challenges. These areas lay out the foundations of the new OECD Reinforcing Democracy Initiative, which has also involved the development of action plans to support governments in responding to these challenges.
Les démocraties sont actuellement à un tournant, soumises à des pressions croissantes internes et externes. Cette publication met en lumière les grands défis de gouvernance publique auxquels les pays sont confrontés aujourd’hui pour préserver et renforcer leurs démocraties, notamment : lutter contre la mésinformation et la désinformation, améliorer l’ouverture des administrations, la participation des citoyens et l’inclusion, assumer des responsabilités mondiales et renforcer la résilience face à l’influence étrangère. Il examine également deux thèmes transversaux qui seront essentiels pour des démocraties solides et efficaces : transformer la gouvernance publique au service de la démocratie numérique et préparer les gouvernements à l’action face à l’enjeu climatique et aux autres défis environnementaux. Ces domaines constituent les fondements de la nouvelle initiative de l’OCDE « Renforcer la démocratie », qui a également donné lieu à l’élaboration de plans d’action visant à aider les gouvernements à relever ces défis.
Hydrogen and carbon capture, utilisation, and storage (CCUS) are set to play important and complementary roles in meeting People’s Republic of China’s (hereafter, “China”) pledge to peak carbon dioxide emissions before 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality before 2060. Hydrogen could contribute to China’s energy system decarbonisation strategy, such as through the use as a fuel and feedstock in industrial processes; in fuel cell electric transport, and for the production of synthetic hydrocarbon fuels for shipping and aviation. The analysis of scenarios in this report suggests that while hydrogen from renewable power electrolysis could meet the majority of hydrogen demand by 2060, equipping existing hydrogen production facilities with CCUS could be a complementary strategy to reduce emissions and scale-up low-emission hydrogen supply.
This report was produced in collaboration with the Administrative Centre for China’s Agenda 21 (ACCA21). It explores today’s hydrogen and CCUS status in China, and the potential evolution of hydrogen demand in various sectors of the Chinese economy through 2060, in light of scenarios developed independently by the IEA and the China Hydrogen Alliance. The report also provides a comparative assessment of the economic performance and life cycle emissions of different hydrogen production routes. Finally, the report discusses potential synergies and regional opportunities in deploying CCUS and hydrogen, and identifies financing mechanisms and supporting policies required to enable the deployment of hydrogen production with CCUS in China.
This policy paper sheds light on the type of investments that can maximise social returns and help bridge territorial gaps in access to services. It starts by explaining why it is challenging to balance proximity and cost-efficiency in service provision while maintaining quality across territories, highlighting the key role of subnational governments in providing education and health services. It then assesses the extent of territorial inequalities in access to basic education and health care services in G20 countries based on a comprehensive review of the evidence available. Finally, the report reflects on future needs based on demographic projections and offers two main implications for the future of infrastructure investment: 1) the need to tailor strategic and flexible investments to different demographic realities; and 2) the need to support quality infrastructure investment by subnational governments.
Over the coming years, significant infrastructure investment will be required to sustain economic growth and improve well-being in many regions and cities. Subnational governments will have a key role to help provide this infrastructure - they are responsible for almost 60% of total public investment in G20 countries. This G20-OECD Policy Toolkit, developed with input from the Asian Development Bank, aims to support inclusive and quality infrastructure investment by subnational governments across developing, emerging and developed countries. It outlines key elements of creating an enabling environment for subnational infrastructure investment. It then details common and innovative funding sources, financing instruments and investment approaches. Rather than recommending specific instruments, it provides a ‘toolkit’ of options for policymakers and practitioners. The Policy Toolkit is supported by 23 case studies.
The consequences of climate change in developing countries are worsening fast: many ecosystems will shortly reach points of irreversible damage, and socio-economic costs will continue to rise. To alleviate the future impacts on populations and economies, policy makers are looking for the spaces where they can make the greatest difference. This report argues that intermediary cities in developing countries are such spaces. Indeed, in the context of fast population growth and urbanisation, these small and medium-sized cities silently play an essential role in the rapid transformation of human settlements, not least by supporting the massive flows of population, goods and services between rural and metropolitan areas. Most of those intermediary cities are still growing: now is therefore the time to influence their dynamics, and thereby the entire design of urbanisation in those regions, in ways that limit the exposure of urban dwellers to climate shocks and avoid carbon lock-in. To that end, based on fresh evidence and policy analysis on the challenges faced by these agglomerations in the context of climate change, the report makes the case for new development approaches to avoid the unsustainable paths followed by too many cities in the recent past.
OECD Regions and Cities at a Glance presents indicators on individual regions and cities since the turn of the new millennium. It provides a comprehensive picture of past successes and likely challenges that regions and cities in OECD members and partner countries will face in their efforts to build stronger, more sustainable and more resilient economies. By relying on a combination of traditional and more innovative data sources, OECD Regions and Cities at a Glance describes the evolving nature of spatial disparities within countries from a multidimensional perspective. New topics covered by this edition include the economic impact of recent shocks, such as the pandemic and the energy crisis, housing affordability, climate change and digitalisation.
How can fossil fuel producers and mineral-rich developing countries design realistic, just and cost-effective low-carbon transition pathways? Taking into account the heterogeneity of low-carbon trajectories, the Equitable Framework and Finance for Extractive-based Countries in Transition (EFFECT) provides options for policy makers, industry and finance institutions in search of the answers. The report aims to help them seize the transformational opportunities linked to sustainable, low-carbon growth. It identifies ways of mitigating the transition’s impacts on fossil fuel industries, workers and poor households, and of preventing the risks of high-carbon lock-in and stranded assets. Recognising the shared responsibility of consuming and producing countries in reducing fossil fuel production and use, EFFECT advocates for transformative partnerships for technology transfer, green finance and capacity building. Ultimately, it supports an equitable sharing of the transition’s benefits and costs, both across and within countries.
Growing climate change is putting global energy security at risk, threatening the reliable supply of fuels and resources. Climate change directly affects every aspect of the energy system, from the extraction, processing and transport of fuels and minerals, to the potential, efficiency and reliability of power generation, to the physical resilience of energy infrastructure, as well as impacting energy demand patterns. According to most scenarios, climate change disruptions are likely to increase in magnitude in the coming decades. A comprehensive understanding of climate effects on energy supply and demand is crucial to strengthening the resilience of energy systems.
This report provides a comprehensive overview of the climate impacts and hazards facing energy systems, with projections up to the end of the 21st century. It also presents effective measures for energy suppliers, consumers and public authorities to enhance climate resilience, with cost-benefit analysis proving that investments in climate resilience bring long-term benefits.
A remoção de barreiras desnecessárias à concorrência por meio de reformas direcionadas pode promover a produtividade e o crescimento econômico. Esta Revisão sobre a Reforma Regulatória no Brasil analisa setores que criam barreiras à concorrência, como regulações que criam obstáculos à entrada de empresas, inibem a entrada de empresas ou restringem atividades em setores profissionais e de rede. De forma complementar, a Revisão também identifica os esforços do governo para desenvolver políticas e ferramentas para melhorar a qualidade das regulações, como avaliação ex ante das regulações, participação social na elaboração de regras e simplificação administrativa. Regulações de alta qualidade podem estimular a produtividade incentivando a alocação eficiente de recursos e promovendo a inovação. Por sua vez, essas medidas podem reduzir os preços para os consumidores, estimular a criação de empregos e ajudar a melhorar os padrões de vida. A Revisão identifica áreas de reforma para alinhar as regulações e os arranjos institucionais do país com as melhores práticas internacionais. Demonstra como um marco regulatório proporcional, claro e eficiente pode gerar melhorias no desempenho econômico do Brasil e no bem-estar de seus cidadãos.
This report describes the structure of the FinTech sector in the Czech Republic and the associated regulatory and supervisory frameworks. It analyses the enabling conditions for FinTech innovation as well as potential hurdles. The findings are based on responses from Czech FinTechs to an OECD survey which assessed market innovations, opportunities and obstacles, the access to and use of data, and the potential benefits of establishing a regulatory sandbox.
This annual publication compiles comparable tax revenue and non-tax revenue statistics for 31 countries in Africa: Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eswatini, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone South Africa, Togo, Tunisia and Uganda. The report extends the well-established methodology on the classification of public revenues set out in the OECD Interpretative Guide to African countries, thereby enabling comparison of tax levels and tax structures not only across the continent, but also with the OECD, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Asia and the Pacific. Data on African countries presented in this publication are also included in the OECD’s Global Revenue Statistics database, which is a fundamental reference for analysis of domestic resource mobilisation. This edition includes a special feature on taxation of the informal sector in Africa. The publication is jointly undertaken by the OECD Centre for Tax Policy and Administration, the OECD Development Centre, the African Union Commission and the African Tax Administration Forum, with the financial support of the European Union.
SPECIAL FEATURE: EFFICIENT TAXATION OF THE INFORMAL SECTOR IN AFRICA
Le Comité d’aide au développement (CAD) de l’OCDE mène tous les cinq à six ans un examen par les pairs qui passe en revue les efforts de coopération pour le développement de chacun de ses membres. Ces examens visent à améliorer la qualité et l’efficacité de leur coopération pour le développement, en mettant en évidence les bonnes pratiques et en recommandant des améliorations. Les États-Unis ont endossé un rôle de chef de file en apportant des contributions d’APD substantielles en réaction aux crises multiples. L’aide extérieure est programmée et acheminée par 21 organismes publics américains. USAID intègre systématiquement la collaboration, l’apprentissage et l’adaptation dans les cycles de ses programmes, et elle s’attache à améliorer la diversité, l’équité et l’inclusion en se faisant le champion des approches pilotées à l’échelon local. Cet examen par les pairs formule, à l’intention des États-Unis, un ensemble de recommandations visant à atténuer les répercussions négatives transnationales de leurs politiques publiques, à encourager des dotations budgétaires plus flexibles concordant avec les besoins, à adopter une approche plus claire vis-à-vis des partenariats multilatéraux, et à doter leur institution de financement du développement des moyens qui lui permettront de mener à bien sa mission. Il recommande aux États-Unis de placer l’efficacité du développement au cœur de l’adaptation au contexte local, de renforcer les ressources humaines, et de prendre en compte la prévention des conflits dans l’ensemble des programmes par pays.
The OECD’s Development Assistance Committee (DAC) conducts peer reviews of individual members once every five to six years. Reviews seek to improve the quality and effectiveness of members’ development co-operation, highlighting good practices and recommending improvements. The United States has led with substantial ODA contributions in response to multiple crises. Twenty-one US government agencies programme and deliver foreign assistance. USAID systematically incorporates collaboration, learning and adapting in its programme cycle and works to increase diversity, equity and inclusion by championing locally-led approaches. This peer review provides a set of recommendations for the United States to mitigate negative transboundary effects of its policies, promote more flexible budget appropriations in line with needs, equip its development finance institution to deliver and adopt a clearer approach to multilateral partnerships. It recommends that the United States puts development effectiveness at the heart of localisation, reinforce human resources, and consider conflict prevention in all country programmes.
Successive crises including COVID-19, Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine and the climate emergency are exacerbating inequalities between and within countries and stifling progress to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement. While developed countries deployed historic stimulus packages to build back better, developing countries lacked fiscal and monetary buffers to respond. Countries with the fewest resources face challenging trade-offs between short-term rescue and long-term financing for a sustainable recovery. The SDG financing gap in developing countries grew due to a drop in available resources called upon in the Addis Ababa Action Agenda coupled with rising financing needs. Official Development Assistance (ODA), or aid, played an important role to help narrow the gap, but could not do so on its own. Global crises open a window of opportunity for SDG alignment of broader resources to narrow the gap. Growing trillions in developed countries aim to reduce risks, including environmental, social, and governance (ESG) criteria. However, resources are not reaching the countries most in need. Urgent action is needed to remove bottlenecks for a more equitable and needs-based allocation of sustainable finance.
L'économie néo-zélandaise s'est rapidement remise du choc du COVID-19 grâce à un confinement efficace du virus, à des mesures de protection des emplois et des revenus et à des politiques macroéconomiques très expansionnistes, mais elle est maintenant en surchauffe et les prix de l'immobilier ont grimpé en flèche. La Banque de Réserve a commencé à durcir ses politiques monétaire et macroprudentielle en vue d'atteindre ses objectifs de stabilité des prix et de stabilité financière. Conjuguées à des mesures visant à accroître l'offre de logements, ces mesures devraient contribuer à modérer l'inflation des prix des logements. Alors que le déficit budgétaire a commencé à baisser par rapport aux sommets atteints lors de la première vague du choc COVID-19, des mesures d'assainissement supplémentaires seront nécessaires pour remettre les finances publiques sur une trajectoire durable, notamment une augmentation de l'âge d'admissibilité à la retraite. La Nouvelle-Zélande dispose d'une marge de manœuvre considérable pour stimuler la productivité en favorisant la croissance de son secteur numérique et en stimulant l'innovation numérique. Cela nécessite de renforcer le réservoir national de compétences numériques, de veiller à ce que les réglementations évoluent avec les changements technologiques et de faciliter les exportations des entreprises exploitant les technologies numériques. La Nouvelle-Zélande dispose d'un cadre institutionnel solide pour réduire les émissions de gaz à effet de serre mais doit mettre en œuvre des mesures de réduction supplémentaires pour atteindre ses objectifs. Le prix du carbone doit augmenter substantiellement, combiné à des mesures complémentaires efficaces.
CHAPITRE THÉMATIQUE : STIMULER LA PRODUCTIVITÉ GRÂCE À LA TRANSFORMATION NUMÉRIQUE
Close to the halfway point of the Sustainable Development Goals, a significant data gap threatens to leave the poorest and most vulnerable behind. The PARIS21 Partner Report on Support to Statistics 2022 raises the alert on shortfalls in funding to data and statistics that have grown larger in 2020 – only partly due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Amidst a worsening picture for global development and a rise in complex global threats, leaders need to reaffirm their commitments to data and statistics as a core component of effective and impactful policy making.
The PARIS21 Partner Report on Support to Statistics, PARIS21's flagship report, is the most comprehensive annual analysis of donor financial flows to data and statistics. This 2022 edition reveals for the first time the impact that the COVID-19 crisis has had on support for statistics, as well as advocating for a renewed focus on data and statistics in order to navigate through future crises.
The Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes is a multilateral framework for tax transparency and information sharing, within which over 160 jurisdictions participate on an equal footing. The Global Forum monitors and peer reviews the implementation of the international standards of Exchange of Information on Request (EOIR) and Automatic Exchange of Information (AEOI).
AEOI provides for the automatic exchange of a predefined set of financial account information between tax authorities on an annual basis to assist them in ensuring the correct amount of tax is paid. To ensure the AEOI standard is fully effective, the Global Forum carries out a review of each jurisdiction’s domestic and international legal frameworks to ensure they are complete, as well as a review of the effectiveness of their implementation of the standard in practice.
This report presents the latest conclusions of the peer reviews of the legal frameworks put in place by each jurisdiction to implement the AEOI standard. The results relate to the more than 100 jurisdictions that committed to commence AEOI by 2020. It also contains, for the first time, the results of the Global Forum’s initial peer reviews in relation to the effectiveness in practice of the implementation of the standard.
This publication contains the 2022 Second Round Combined Peer Review on the Exchange of Information on Request for South Africa.
This publication contains the 2022 Second Round Peer Review on the Exchange of Information on Request for Türkiye.